Tribal Uprisings in British India - Different Phases, Causes, Policies of Colonial Government & More

Tribal uprisings were a common occurrence in British India. The tribal people were often marginalized and were exploited by the British. They rose up in revolt against their oppression. As a result, tribal uprisings in British India were very common. Some of the most famous tribal uprisings include the Santhal Rebellion, the Munda Uprising, and the Kol Uprising. These uprisings were often brutally suppressed by the British. 

Tribal Uprisings in British India are one of the most important topics for the UPSC IAS Examination. It covers a significant part of the Modern History subject in the UPSC GS Paper 1 Syllabus and current events of international importance in UPSC prelims.

In this article on Tribal Uprisings in British India, we shall discuss their causes, various uprisings all over the country, and their effects on the Indian National Movement. This will be very useful for aspirants in the UPSC Prelims Exam.

You can also register for the best coaching for history optional and begin your UPSC IAS preparation journey with Testbook. Also, study the NCERT Notes on the Ryotwari System and Mahalwari System from the linked article.

Overview of Tribal Uprisings in British India

The below table gives the list of all Tribal Uprisings in British India:

Tribal Movement	Year	Key Features
Ahom’s Revolt	1828-1833	Assam's Ahom tribe revolted due to Britishers not fulfilling promises after the Burmese war.
Khasis’ Revolt	1830s	Khasis, led by Tirath Singh in Jaintia and Garo hills, protested against British occupation of their region.
Singphos’ Rebellion	1830s	Singphos in Assam revolted against the British occupation of their region.
Ramosi Uprising	1822-1829	Ramosi tribals of western ghats, under Chittur Singh, revolted against the Britisher’s occupation of the region.
Khond Rebellion	1837-1856	Tribals from Tamil Nadu to Bengal, led by Chakra Bisoi, rebelled against interference in customs and new taxes.
Pahariyas’ Rebellion	1818-1831, 1913	Led by Raja Jagganath, Pahariyas of Raj Mahal Hills rebelled against British expansion on their land.
Naikada Movement	1868	Tribals from Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat revolted against British and caste Hindus to establish Dharma Raj.
Koli Uprising	1829, 1839, 1844-1848	Tribals of Gujarat and Maharashtra revolted against the Company's control and interference multiple times.
Kharwar Rebellion	1870s	Bihar's Kharwar tribals, led by Bhagrit Majhi, revolted against revenue settlement activities.
Bhuyan and Juang Rebellions	1867, 1891	Keonjhar, Orissa tribes revolted twice in 1867 and 1891 against British rule.
Munda Rebellion	1899-1900	Birsa Munda led Chotanagpur tribals against the 'Dikus' (outsiders).
Bhil Uprising	1820–1837, 1913	Bhil tribes in the Western Ghats protested against the Company's rule and later formed Bhil Raj under Govind Guru.
Santhal Rebellion	1855-1856	Sido and Kanhu led Bihar's tribals against moneylenders and zamindars.
Chuar Uprising	1778	Organized by aboriginal tribesmen of Midnapore against land revenue demands and economic distress.
Bastar Revolt	1910	Jagdalpur's tribals rebelled against new feudal and forest levies.
Tana Bhagat Movement	1914-1919	Chotanagpur's tribals, led by Jatra Bhagat and Balram Bhagat, revolted against outsider interference.
Chenchus Uprising	1921-1922	Nallamalla Hills' Chenchus, led by K. Hanumanthu, revolted against British forest laws.
Rampa Rebellion	1922-1924	Led by tribal communities of the Rampa region in Andhra Pradesh against the British administration.
Koya Uprising	1879-1880	Eastern Godavari's Koya tribals, led by Tomma Sora and Raja Annantyar, revolted against police and moneylenders.
Zeliangsong Movement	1920	Tribes of Manipur protested against the British for failing to protect them during Kuki violence.
Naga Movement	1905-1931	Tribals of Manipur, led by Jadonang, revolted against British rule and formed Naga raj.

Know more about the Difference between scheduled areas and tribal areas!

Tribal Uprisings in British India in Brief

The Tribal Uprisings in British India can be divided into the following three phases:

The First Phase (Between 1795-1860)

• This phase coincided with the establishment and expansion of the Colonial Government.
• The main leadership emerged from the tribal society only and was supported by those whose traditional rights were restricted by the British Government.
• Main revolts →: Kols Uprising, Santhal Uprising, Khond Uprising, and Early Munda Uprising.

Kols Uprising

• It is one of the most prominent tribal uprisings against the British Government.
• The Kols were residents of the Chotanagpur area in India.
• Before the advent of the Britishers, they enjoyed absolute autonomy under their traditional chiefs, but this practice was reversed once the Britishers took over.
• The colonial government also introduced the concept of non-tribal moneylenders, zamindars, and traders.
• Because of this, the kols lost their traditional lands to outsiders or moneylenders and had to pay large taxes.
• They were also forced to work as bonded and landless workers because of indebtedness and poverty.
• The British Judicial policies further added to their woes.
• Because of all this, the Kols revolted in 1831-32 against the British Government and the outsiders.
• They killed many non-tribal revolts and also burnt their houses.
• Their armed rebellion lasted two years, after which the Britishers brutally suppressed it.
• British soldiers from Calcutta and Banaras had to be called in to suppress the fierce revolt of the Kols.

Study the NCERT Notes on the Charter Act of 1813 here.

Santhal Uprising

• It is the most substantial tribal movement in India against the colonial government.
• When the Permanent Settlement was introduced in Bengal in 1793, the Santhal tribal revolts were promised to provide wages or rent-free lands as they were employed as labourers.
• On the contrary, they were forced to work as landless agricultural labourers and were exploited by the colonial government.
• Thus, the Santhals revolted for the first time under Bir Singh of Sasan at Lakhimpur.
• Then, the Santhals revolted for the second time in 1855-56.
• The Santhals mainly occupied the areas between Rajmahal and Bhagalpur, known by the name Daman-i-koh, revolted against the outsiders, which they called ‘Dikus.’
• Their primary aim was to annihilate the alien or British regime.
• Their rebellion was spread in the Birbhum, Hazaribagh, Sighbhum, Bankura, and Monghyr districts in Odisha and Bihar.
• The exploitations of the Santhal people by the policemen, zamindars, revenue, and court officials further culminated in their resentment.
• The moneylenders charged exorbitant interest rates ranging from 50 % to 500 % from the Santhals, which led to their poverty.
• Additionally, the British Government provided refuge to the oppressors rather than doing justice to the poor Santhals.
• Thus, under Siddhu Murmu's and Kanhu Murmu's leadership, more than 10000 Santhals revolted against the colonial government in 1855 to oust the outsider rule and establish their own government or regime.
• The Santhals derailed the postal and railway communication between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal and also attacked the residences of zamindars, money-lenders, white planters, railway engineers, and British officials.
• But in 1956, the British Government finally captured them, and the movement was brutally suppressed.

Study the NCERT Notes on Government of India Act, 1919, here.

Khond Uprising

• The Khonds occupied the hilly tracts extending from Bengal to Tamil Nadu and covering the central provinces.
• They were completely autonomous before the advent of the Britishers due to the inaccessible mountainous terrain.
• In response to the exploitative forest policies of the Britishers, they revolted between 1837 and 1856 under the leadership of Chakra Bisoi, who took the name of ‘Young Raja.’
• The tribal population from Ghumusar, Kalahandi, and Patna participated in the revolt.
• Their main cause of the revolt was Britisher’s attempt to suppress the practice of ‘Mariah’ (Sacrifice) and, in turn, introduce new taxes along with the inflow of Zamindars and Sahukars (Moneylenders).
• The Kols revolted against the ‘Maria Agency’ formed by the Britishers with the help of bow arrows, swords, and axes.
• They were also supported by some regional militia clans led by Radha Krishna Dand Sena.
• Finally, Chakra Bisoi was captured in 1955, after which the revolt died.

Study the NCERT Notes on the Simon Commission here.

Early Munda Uprising

• The Mundas revolted around seven times between 1789 and 1832 against the oppressions caused by the moneylenders and the British Governement.
• After the period of 1857, many Mundas sided with the ‘Evangelical Lutheran Mission’ with the hope of a better future.
• However, many apostates revolted against this mission and became more rebellious once they realized these missionaries couldn’t provide them with long-term gains.
• Their basic aim was to expel the outsiders or ‘dikus’; their movement was named ‘Sardariladai’ or ‘War of the leaders.’
• They wanted to establish the domination of the Munda traditional leaders on their lands.
• They also fought to revive the ‘Khuntkatti System,’ which the colonial government banned.
• Their movement faded out each time in the absence of a charismatic leader.
• However, their movement was given a ray of hope under the leadership of Birsa Munda in 1899.

Study the NCERT Notes on the Rise of Gandhiji in the Indian Freedom Struggle here.

The Second Phase (Between 1860-1920)

• Main Uprisings → Munda Uprising under Birsa Munda

Munda Uprising under the leadership of Birsa Munda

• Under the leadership of Birsa Munda, the Munda rebels, who had failed to stage a substantial revolt against the colonial government until now, successfully revolted against the Britishers.
• In 1894, the Birsa Munda led the Mundas and urged them not to pay taxes to the British government and debts to the moneylenders.
• He was finally arrested, sent to jail for two years, and released in 1897.
• Again, in December 1899, he staged an armed revolt against the Britishers and the moneylenders.
• The Mundas under Birsa Munda picketed police stations, churches, and other properties of the Britishers.
• Finally, in 1900, Birsa Munda was caught, and he died in jail due to cholera when he was only 25 years old.

Study the NCERT Notes on Subsidiary Alliance here.

The Third Phase (1920-1947)

• Main Uprisings → Tana Bhagat Movement/Oraon Movement and Rampa Rebellion.

Tana Bhagat Movement/Oraon Movement

• It was a tribal uprising from 1914 to 1919 led by a section of the Tana Bhagats or Oraons under the leadership of Jatra Oraon.
• This movement culminated in the Chotanagpur region of Bihar.
• In its initial phase, it was only a religious movement like the Munda movement and was known as ‘Kurukh Dharam’ (The original religion of the Oraons).
• In the later parts of the movement, the Oraons opposed the taxes of the British Government by leading a Satyagraha or a Civil Disobedience Movement.
• They opposed the Zamindars, Moneylenders, and, ultimately, the British Government.
• This movement is a kind of ‘Sanskritization’ Movement.
• The Tana Bhagats were the followers of Non-Violence, just like Mahatma Gandhi.
• This revolt was finally brutally suppressed by the British Government.

Study the NCERT notes on Revolutionaries in the Indian Freedom Movement here.

Rampa Rebellion

• Alluri Sitarama Raju led the Rampa rebellion in the districts of Vishakhapatnam and East Godavari in present-day Andhra Pradesh.
• A.S. Raju was inspired by the revolutionaries of Bengal, which motivated him to stage a revolt against the Britishers.
• This revolt continued from 1922 to 1924, in which Alluri and his supporters picketed many police stations and killed various officers while stealing arms and ammunition.
• This movement had the support of a large number of the local population.
• The Britishers were finally able to suppress this movement when they captured Alluri Raju in 1924 and shot him dead after tying him to a tree.

Study the NCERT Notes on the 3rd Carnatic War here.

Uprisings led by the frontier tribes (Northeastern tribes)

Mainly three uprisings: Khasi Uprising, Ahom Uprising, Singphos Uprising

Khasi Uprising

• After the Burmese war, the Brotoshers occupied the hilly tracts between Garo and Jaintia Hills.
• The COlonial Government wanted to build a road linking the Brahmaputra valley with the Sylhet region, which would pass through the entire Khasi region.
• The Khasis revolted against this desire of the British Government under the leadership of their chief, Tirut Singh.
• They were joined by the Garos as well.
• Their long tussle with the Colonial government continued for four years before it was brutally suppressed in 1833.

Study the NCERT Notes on the Battle of Plassey here.

Ahom Uprising

• The Britishers had promised to withdraw their control after the end of the first Burma War (1824-1826).
• But instead of this, the Britishers tried to gain control over the Ahom territories after the first Burma War was over.
• This led to resentment amongst the Ahoms, who revolted against the colonial government under the leadership of Gomdhar Konwar in 1828.
• The Britishers finally decided to follow a conciliatory policy by handing over the command of upper Assam and a few other parts of the kingdom to Maharaja Purandar Singh Narendra.

Study the NCERT Notes on Doctrine of Lapse here.

Singphos Uprising

• When the Britishers were busy fighting off the challenge posed by the Khasis, the Singhphos also challenged the Colonial Government in the early 1830s.
• This rebellion lasted for only four months before the Britishers suppressed it.
• But, the Singhphos again revolted in 1830, this time with much greater strength as they killed the British Political Agent.
• Also, in 1843, Nirang Phidu, the Chief of Singhphos, attacked the British Garrison and killed many soldiers.
• Later, in 1849, Khasma Singphos showed aggression against a British village in Assam.
• Finally, this uprising was brutally suppressed by the British Government.

Various Causes of Tribal Movement in India

• Before the Britishers came, the tribal revolt population lived peacefully near the forests and natural resources.
• The Britishers, motivated by their desire to procure raw materials from the forests to support the Industrial Revolution in England, began to enact some exploitative policies, which led to the resentment of the tribal groups.
• Initially, the tribal revolt groups depended on activities like shifting agriculture, hunting, fishing, and using forest products without any restrictions.
• The policies introduced by the Colonial Government led to the inflow of outsiders into the otherwise traditional areas of the tribals, and these outsiders were generally non-tribals.
• With the coming of outsiders, the policy of settled agriculture was introduced, which led to the decline of the traditional lands of tribals.
• Because of this, the tribals who previously owned their lands were diminished to landless and bonded labourers on their own lands.
• Their ownership rights were greatly restricted, and the joint land ownership system was replaced by the concept of private ownership owned by non-tribal landlords.
• Also, many limitations were placed on using natural resources and forest products, and practices like shifting cultivation were banned.
• This further declined the per-capita income of the tribals.
• To add to the woes, the concept of moneylenders was introduced, which provided loans to the tribals at exorbitant interest rates.
• This further pushed the tribal population into the vicious cycle of indebtedness, poverty, and landlessness, which greatly resulted in the growth of resentment towards the British Government.
• Earlier, the tribal society was mainly egalitarian and without strict class or caste systems. But with the outsiders' coming rigid caste and class systems were introduced, which enhanced the social inequalities in the tribal society.
• Further, the efforts of the Christian Missionaries to spread the religion of Christianity by diminishing the age-old religious practises of the tribals further fueled their resentment towards the Britishers.

Study the NCERT Notes on Regulating Act of 1773 here.

Various Policies of the Colonial Government that culminated in the Tribal Uprisings

As we analyzed above, the harsh forest and administrative policies of the Colonial Government led to feelings of revolt and resentment amongst the tribals. Let us discuss some of these policies briefly:

1856

• A need for a comprehensive forest policy was first time realised by Lord Dalhousie.
• He was the one who first introduced railways in India in 1853 from Mumbai to Thane.
• So, an extensive level of timber supplies was required to construct railway lines on a large scale.
• This was one of the main reasons for Dalhousie's pitching for a comprehensive forest policy.
• Another reason was that ships built from the Indian teak helped the English empire fight against Napoleon's might, so the British Government wanted to expedite the construction of ships built from Indian teak.

1865

• The Indian Forest Act of 1865 further expanded the control of the British Colonial Government over the forest and natural resources of the tribals.
• This act gave the Government the power to declare any land covered with trees as government property and thus make regulations to govern them.

1878

• The Forest Act of 1878 further restricted the years-old practice of traditional communities using their forest produce and enhanced the colonial government’s control over traditional forestry.
• This act established a state monopoly of the colonial government over the forests.
• Also, this act specified that the traditional use of the forests by the tribals was not a right but a privilege provided to them by the colonial government, which could be withdrawn at any time.
• Three categories of forests were established through this act:
• Reserve Forest – Restricted only for use by the Colonial Government.
• Protected Forests
• Village Forests

1927

• By moving forward on the bedrock established by the Indian Forest Act of 1978, the Indian Forest Act introduced in 1927 further declined the traditional control over the forest produce.
• This act was enacted mainly to serve the interests of the British to procure timber on a large scale.
• This act declared the forests as state property, which led to the British Government's large-scale destruction of forest produce to procure timber.

Know more about the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups!

Major Weakness of these Tribal Uprisings in British India

Here are the major weaknesses of the tribal uprisings in British India:

• The tribal people were often divided by their different languages, cultures, and religions. This made it difficult for them to unite and fight against the British.
• The tribal uprisings were often led by charismatic individuals. They lacked the military or political skills necessary to lead a successful rebellion.
• The tribal people were often armed with spears, bows, and arrows, while the British had guns and cannons. This gave the British a significant advantage in battle.
• The tribal people often relied on surprise attacks to overcome the British. The British eventually learned to anticipate these attacks and were able to defeat them.

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