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Home / IAS Preparation / Human Migration

Human Migration - Types, Causes, Effects, and Challenges

Last Updated on Jan 23, 2024
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Human migration is a social phenomenon that means the movement of people away from their place of birth or residence across borders or within the country itself. Humans choose to migrate willingly due to social, economic, and educational factors or non-willingly due to natural and man-made factors. After the economic reforms of 1991 and the consequent rapid rise of some metropolises, India has been facing challenges associated with interstate migration. 

This topic is quite important for UPSC IAS exams. It forms a vital part of the Social Issues subject in the General Studies Prelims and the General Studies Mains Paper 1 syllabus. 

In this article, we shall discuss all the important aspects of migration in India including the features, types, causes, and consequences. 

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Learn everything about the Social Issues in India here! 

What is Human Migration? 

Human migration is the movement of people from one place to another. Migration also causes changes in the population structure of a city, region, or country. The United Nations Migrant Agency officially referred to as International Organisation for Migrants specifies a migrant as a person who has moved or is moving across geographical borders or within the state away from the original place of residence.

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History of Migration

  • Humans have been migrating throughout history, starting from ancient times.
  • Many early human societies were nomadic or hunter-gatherer communities. These groups moved from place to place in search of resources like food, water, and shelter.
  • Migration also occurred due to trade and exploration. Ancient civilizations like the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans established trade routes and colonies. This led to the movement of people across regions and continents.
  • The period of European colonization from the 15th to the 20th century resulted in large-scale migrations. European powers established colonies in various parts of the world. This led to the forced migration of enslaved Africans, indentured laborers, and settlers.
  • The Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries brought significant changes to migration patterns. People moved from rural areas to cities in search of employment in industries.
  • In the 20th and 21st centuries, migration has been influenced by various factors. This includes globalization, political conflicts, economic disparities, and advancements in transportation and communication.
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Theories of Migration

Push-Pull Theory

This theory suggests that migration is influenced by:

  • push factors (negative conditions that "push" people to leave their place of origin) and
  • pull factors (positive conditions that attract people to a particular destination).

Push factors may include poverty, unemployment, political instability, or environmental disasters. Pull factors can be better job prospects, higher wages, political stability, or educational opportunities.

Neoclassical Economic Theory

According to this theory, migration is primarily driven by economic factors. Individuals weigh the benefits of migration and make decisions based on potential economic gains. Wage differentials, employment opportunities, and the availability of resources are important considerations.

Network Theory

Network theory emphasizes the role of social networks and interpersonal connections in migration. People are more likely to migrate to places where they have family members or acquaintances who can provide support. Networks help reduce the risks and uncertainties associated with migration.

Dual Labor Market Theory

This theory suggests that migration is influenced by the demand for different types of labor in destination countries. Migrants often fill low-skilled or low-wage jobs that native workers are unwilling to take. The theory highlights the role of labor market segmentation. It highlights the need for specific types of workers in shaping migration patterns.

Institutional Theory

This theory focuses on the impact of political and institutional factors on migration. Laws related to immigration, citizenship, and labor rights shape the opportunities and barriers for migrants. Institutional factors can either facilitate or restrict migration flows.

Learn more about the un comprehensive refugee response framework!

Types of Migration 

Here are the different types of migration that occur in India: 

Internal Migration 

  • It means the movement of people from one place to another within a country’s geographical boundaries. 
  • It has two key facets namely short-term and long-term migration. A short-term migration means a recurring back and forth between the source and destination points. On the other hand, long-term migration means the complete relocation of an individual along with his family.
  • Some of the most significant source states from where migration happens are Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh. 
  • The destination states where migrants are headed consist of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. 
  • As per the 2011 Census, out of 45 crore migrants in India, 99% constitute internal migration. 
  • Out of the total internal migrants, around 70 percent constitute women. The primary reason for the internal migration of women is on account of marriage. The total number of women facing migration due to marriage is estimated at 21 crores. 
  • Coming to the migration of males, the primary reason for their movement to a different place is employment issues for both the urban and rural areas. 
  • Domestic work, mining, quarrying, brick kilns, transportation, agriculture, and construction are some subsectors in which the internal migrants employ themselves. 
  • Due to rapid urbanization and the difference between urban and rural wage rates, internal migration far outweighs external migration in the context of India. 

External Migration 

  • It means the movement of people from their place of birth or residence to a different country. 
  • It has three working components: emigration, immigration, and refugee migration. 
  • Emigration means people moving out of India to different parts of the world. Immigration means persons of foreign origin moving into India. 
  • Refugee immigration means the forced entry of some people into India in the form of refugees. 
  • The United Arab Emirates holds the record for the highest emigration from India. The number of resident Indian nationals in the UAE stands at 3.5 million as of 2021. It is followed by the USA where this figure is 2 million. 
  • The major reason for external migration is better employment and educational opportunities. 

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Causes of Migration in India 

Here are some of the major causes of migration in India:

  • Employment: Better employment opportunities is one of the primary reasons for internal as well as external migration. People move out to different cities and countries in search of an improved livelihood outlook. Cities offer better wages and more opportunities in trade, transport, logistics, and hospitality sectors. 
  • Education: Lack of proper educational facilities in rural and small towns forces the young generation to move to big cities for educational activities. Individuals living in cities migrate to other countries for better academic prospects.
  • Lack of security: Poor law and order conditions, social strife, and regular conflicts based on caste and religion force people to move to safer places. Areas witnessing political instability, and high crime rate witnesses a huge outflow of people. 
  • Marriage: It is the biggest reason for the migration of women. According to the 2011 Census, there have been 21 crore marriage-related migrants and an overwhelming majority of these are women. All four types of migration i.e., rural to rural, urban to urban, rural to urban, and urban to rural are possible due to marriage. 
  • Disaster: Natural disasters and deteriorating environmental conditions also force individuals to migrate from one place to another. Floods, landslides, mudslides, and forest fires compel people to move to safer places away from the dangers. 

Get a detailed analysis of the Social Index Report here! 

Positive Effects of Migration

Some of the positive consequences of migration are as follows: 

  • Labour supply: Migration of people from rural and semi-rural areas to urban metropolia in search of jobs provides companies and industries with the much-needed supply of labor. These people provide their human resources and play an important role in the economic growth of the country. 
  • Economic remittances: Emigrants who have moved to other countries for better job opportunities earn handsome wages and salaries. They send remittances back home and the economic prosperity of migrants also leads to a better quality of life for their households in India. 
  • Skill development: Migration also enhances the skills and knowledge of the workers via exposure and interaction with the outside world. 
  • Quality of life: Migration to big cities will improve the quality of life of migrants. They will be able to access better healthcare, provide good schooling to their children, and have better social relations. 
  • Social remittances: Another positive impact of migration is that individuals shall be learning the customs, traditions, and cultures of the palace to which they are migrating. All these things will make people more tolerant and improve harmony in society. 
  • Demographics: Outmigration of people will reduce the population density of that area and consequently efficient allocation of resources. Population density is quite high in north and east India and relocation of people to different places is a welcome change. 

Learn everything about the Poverty Alleviation Programmes of the Government of India. 

Negative Effects of Migration

Some of the negative consequences of migration in India are given below: 

  • Demographic profile: The large-scale out migration of young people to urban areas presents a demographic disadvantage in rural areas. As most young men and women move out due to a number of factors, the elderly and women are left behind alone to take care of land and agriculture.
  • Brain drain: One of the biggest disadvantages of emigration from India is brain drain or loss of invaluable human capital. Talented and knowledgeable individuals move to other countries for better livelihoods and social life, and it leads to a significant loss of human capital for India. 
  • Political exclusion: A harsh reality for migrants is the exclusion from the political process. They lack voting rights and as a result, do not have the bargaining power to press for their issues. 
  • Slum: Very expensive residential areas in big cities and the corresponding low income of migrants have led to the development of unhygienic slum dwellings. These are small, cramped dwelling units that make the city look untidy and create socio-economic problems. 

Learn everything about the International Organization for Migration(IOM). 

Challenges Related to Migration in India

The challenges related to large-scale migration in India are as follows: 

  • Informal Economy: The overwhelming majority of migrants who move to cities for better employment opportunities end up in the informal economy. The unorganised sector is marked by no social security, unsafe working conditions, low wages, and physical abuse. 
  • Housing: Lack of proper affordable housing options forces the migrant workers to live in unhygienic slums. The situation is so terrible that many migrants are forced to sleep at their workplaces, open areas, and pavements. 
  • Access to Education: According to UNESCO’s 2019 Report on Global Education Monitoring, children left behind by migrant parents suffer from a lack of access to educational institutions. The report states that almost 80% of migrant children in India’s top seven cities do not have any educational institution near the worksite. 
  • Integration of Migrants: The administration also faces challenges in the integration and inclusion of migrants. The native residents of a place may be skeptical of new persons and hence the migrants also face discrimination. 
  • Lack of Information: People moving out of India in search of job opportunities suffer from a lack of access to information regarding jobs. Hence, many instances of abuse, confiscation of passports, and unhealthy working conditions for the migrants. Lack of tendency to seek help results in challenging situations for diplomatic missions to reach out and provide justice to them. 

Learn more about the Refugees In India!

Way Forward
  • Migration can help achieve development goals, so preventing it may not be helpful.
  • Policies and programs should make it easier for migrants to settle in their new communities.
  • Government Action
    • Basic Amenities: Provide decent housing, fair wages, and safety for migrant workers.
    • Social Security: Support programs like health insurance and childcare can be helpful.
  • State-Level Examples
    • Kerala's Aawaz: Health insurance scheme for migrants.
    • Apna Ghar: Affordable housing for migrant workers.
    • Portable Rights: Ensures basic rights even when working in another state.

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Human Migration FAQs

The two bases of Indian migration are internal and external migration. The former consists of both inter and intra-state migration. The latter constitutes the emigration and immigration of individuals into India.

Delhi receives the highest number of migrants in India.

Uttar Pradesh is the biggest contributor to the migrant pool in India.

Niti Aayog has prepared a draft national policy on migrants. However, the Union Cabinet is yet to give approval to the policy.

The Ministry of Labour and Employment looks after the issues of migrants in India.
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