Sociological Thinkers, Sociological Traditions MCQ Quiz in தமிழ் - Objective Question with Answer for Sociological Thinkers, Sociological Traditions - இலவச PDF ஐப் பதிவிறக்கவும்

 William Graham Sumner popularized the terms "mores" and
 "folkways" in the field of sociology.Important Points Here's what the terms mean according to Sumner:

• Folkways are norms for routine or casual interaction, which arise organically in a society over time. They include common customs, practices, and procedures that often shape daily behavior but are not essential to society's survival.
• Violating these norms might result in mild social disapproval but not serious consequences. Examples include eating habits, dress codes, and manners.
• Mores, on the other hand, are the moral views and practices that are held as central to societal identity, and the violation of which can result in severe reprobation or punishment.
• They're norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance. Mores include, for example, societal views on issues like murder, theft, or other behavior deeply ingrained as good or bad.

It's important to note that while Sumner played a significant role in bringing these concepts into social scientific discourse, such ideas have antecedents in cultural anthropology and other fields.

Additional Information  

• William Graham Sumner (1840-1910) was a prominent American social scientist and was one of the founders of sociology in the United States. He was a professor of political and social science at Yale University and was known for his staunch advocacy of laissez-faire economics, free markets, and social Darwinism.
• Sumner's academic work laid the groundwork for many foundational theories in sociology and anthropology. He is best known for his development and application of the concepts of "folkways" and "mores," terms which he used to describe the everyday and more consequential behavioral norms, respectively, that underpin social order.

The correct answer is C, A, B, D.

Key Points

• Claude Levi Strauss(1908-2009) is known as father of Structural Anthropology and Modern Anthropology. He is a Structuralist in the purest form.
• He considers culture as a system of symbolic communication and inculcated linguistics in anthropology.
• He focused on individual cognitive structures rather then collective consciousness. 
• Following are the chronological sequence of the work of C. Levi Strauss:

1. The Elementary Structure of Kinship(1949)- ​According to Levi Strauss, one cannot attribute a cultural phenomenon like unilateral cross-cousin marriage to personal feelings. He has briefly discussed Alliance Theory of Kinship and Positive marriage rules.
2. Structural Anthropology(1958)- Claude Levi-Strauss postulates that all cultures are equal since all civilizations have unchangeable underlying structures and, as a result, all cultural behaviors have counterparts in other cultures.
3. The Savage Mind(1962)- Levi-Strauss's study of the myth and its function in human society is one of the book's major contributions. He contends that myths are complex systems of symbols and meanings that represent deep societal beliefs and values rather than stories. 
4. The Raw and the Cooked: Introduction to a Science of Mythology(1964)-Levi Strauss contributed the idea of the binary opposition in this book. There are categorical opposites that arise from everyday experience with the most fundamental types of things, such as raw and cooked, fresh and rotten, and so on.

Additional Information

•  Following are the major contributions and ideas of Levi Strauss through his work:

1. Linguistics and Phonology in understanding culture
2. Mechanical and Statistical Model
3. Deep underlying structure
4. Alliance theory of Kinship
5. Raw and cooked folktales of South America
6. Bricolage
7. Role of Binary opposition

The corrct naswer is Karl Mannheim.Key Points

• Karl Mannheim (born Károly Manheim, 27 March 1893 – 9 January 1947) was an influential Hungarian sociologist during the first half of the 20th century.
• In Mannheim's view, social conflict is caused by the diversity in thoughts and beliefs (ideologies) among major segments of society that derive from differences in social location. Ideas and beliefs are rooted in larger thought systems (Weltanschauungen), a phenomenon Mannheim called relationism.
• According to Karl Mannheim, Ideology and Utopia argue that ideologies are mental fictions whose function is to veil the true nature of a given society. They originate unconsciously in the minds of those who seek to stabilize a social order.
• It was Karl Mannheim who said, All truths are ideologically biased, all truths ultimately reflect the interest and biases of social groups.
•  In ideologically charged situations, one's prejudices end up affecting one's factual beliefs.

Additional Information

• Charles Lemert is an American-born social theorist and sociologist. He has written extensively on social theory, globalization and culture.
• Clifford James Geertz was an American anthropologist who is remembered mostly for his strong support for and influence on the practice of symbolic anthropology and who was considered "for three decades... the single most influential cultural anthropologist in the United States."
• Karl Heinrich Marx FRSA was a German philosopher, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist, journalist, a critic of political economy, and socialist revolutionary. His best-known titles are the 1848 pamphlet The Communist Manifesto and the four-volume Das Kapital.

Thus, All truths are ideologically biased, all truths ultimately reflect the interest and biases of social groups, are the views of Karl Mannheim.

Reflexivity refers to the ability of individuals to think about their own thoughts and actions.

• Giddens argues that reflexivity is a fundamental characteristic of human beings and that it is what distinguishes us from other animals.

Important Points

• Reflexivity is a key concept in Anthony Giddens' theory of structuration. 
• Reflexivity allows us to examine our own beliefs, values, and assumptions.
• It also allows us to change our behavior in light of new information or experiences.
• Reflexivity is essential for social change, as it allows us to challenge existing social structures and norms.

Additional Information

•  Anthony Giddens is one of the most important sociologists of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.
• Key Contributions to Sociology:
• Structuration theory: Giddens' structuration theory is a major contribution to sociological theory. Structuration theory emphasizes the interaction between structure and agency.
• Reflexivity: Giddens' concept of reflexivity is also a major contribution to sociology.
• Reflexivity refers to the ability of individuals to think about their own thoughts and actions. 
• Time-space distanciation: Giddens' concept of time-space distanciation is another important contribution to sociology.
• Time-space distanciation refers to the way in which social relations are stretched across time and space. 

The correct answer is option 1- (a) - (ii), (b) - (iv), (c) - (i), (d) - (iii).

Important Points

Hermeneutics is a methodological practice used primarily in theology and philosophy, though it has been adapted for other fields as well.

• One of its major principles is that you cannot separate an individual from their culture or their historical background, hence the truth is interpreted, rather than taken as is.

Symbolic Interactionism is a micro-level theory that focuses on the relationships among individuals within a society.

• It's a theoretical perspective that centers on the idea of communication, specifically the symbolic meaning that people develop and rely upon in the process of social interaction.

Phenomenology seeks to explore and describe phenomena as they appear to a person's subjective experience, rather than trying to provide an objective analysis of the phenomena.

• It aims to offer rich, descriptive accounts of people's personal lived experiences, views and beliefs.

Interpretive approaches are concerned with how we interpret the social world in which we live, how we make sense of the social rituals, norms, and conventions that structure our everyday lives.

• Theories and approaches that adopt this perspective emphasize the underpinning meanings that guide human action and interaction.

According to Edward Said the East is "the Orient" and the West is " the Occident". Therefore, the correct answer is option 2.

Important Points

• Edward Said is renowned for his significant work on the subject of Orientalism, which he released in 1978. In this work, Said critiques the Western tradition of "Orientalism," which refers to the way scholars, artists, and colonial administrators from the Western world have represented the Eastern world (Middle East, Asia, and North Africa) throughout history.
• Said argues that the Western study of Eastern cultures and civilizations was dominated by prejudiced notions and false assumptions, which created an East-West dichotomy where the East (the Orient) is viewed as 'the other'. This "othering" process often involved depicting the East as exotic, backward, uncivilized, and at times dangerous. On the other side of this dichotomy, the West (the Occident) is construed as developed, rational, and superior.

The correct answer is A - IV, B - II, C - I, D - III. Key Points

• Freedom and Civilization (1944) by Bronislaw Malinowski: Bronislaw Malinowski was a pioneering anthropologist known for his ethnographic work in the Trobriand Islands and his contributions to the field of social anthropology. "Freedom and Civilization" is one of Malinowski's notable works, in which he explores the relationship between individual freedom and societal structure. He examines how cultural norms, institutions, and values shape human behavior and social organization, emphasizing the interplay between personal agency and social constraints in different cultural contexts. 
• Folk Culture of Yucatan (1941) by Robert Redfield: Robert Redfield was an American anthropologist known for his studies of rural communities and folk cultures in Mexico. "Folk Culture of Yucatan" is a seminal work by Redfield, based on his fieldwork among the Maya communities of the Yucatan Peninsula. In this book, he examines the traditional lifeways, beliefs, rituals, and social organization of rural Maya villages, highlighting the persistence of indigenous cultural practices and values in the face of modernization and social change.
• The Elementary Structure of Kinship (1949) by Levi-Strauss: Claude Levi-Strauss was a French anthropologist known for his structuralist approach to the study of culture and society. "The Elementary Structure of Kinship" is a foundational work in anthropology, in which Levi-Strauss analyzes the fundamental principles underlying kinship systems across different cultures. He identifies recurring patterns of kinship terminology, marriage rules, and descent practices, arguing that these structural features reflect universal cognitive processes and social organization principles.
• A Natural Science of Society (1948) by A.R. Radcliffe-Brown: A.R. Radcliffe-Brown was a British social anthropologist known for his contributions to the development of structural-functionalism, a theoretical framework that emphasizes the interdependence and functional significance of social institutions. "A Natural Science of Society" is a key work by Radcliffe-Brown, in which he outlines his theoretical approach to the study of human societies as natural systems governed by regularities and laws. He argues for the application of scientific methods and principles to the study of social phenomena, aiming to establish anthropology as a rigorous and systematic discipline akin to the natural sciences.

Additional Information

• Structural Functionalism: This theoretical perspective, associated with A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, emphasizes the interconnectedness of social institutions and their functions in maintaining social order and stability. Structural functionalists analyze how different parts of society work together to fulfill essential functions and meet the needs of individuals and the community.
• Structuralism: Levi-Strauss is known for his structuralist approach to anthropology, which focuses on identifying underlying structures and patterns of meaning in cultural phenomena. Structuralism seeks to uncover the universal principles and cognitive structures that shape human behavior and social organization, emphasizing the study of binary oppositions, myths, and kinship systems.
• Participant Observation: Both Bronislaw Malinowski and Robert Redfield utilized participant observation as a key methodological approach in their fieldwork. Participant observation involves researchers immersing themselves in the daily lives and activities of the communities they study, actively participating in social interactions, rituals, and practices to gain a deeper understanding of culture and social dynamics.

Thus, 

Montesquieu has classified political institutions into republic, aristocracy, monarchy, and autocracy. Important Points

• Montesquieu was a French political philosopher of the Enlightenment period who played a very important role in the French Revolution. 
• His political theory was based on the idea of separation of powers which shaped modern democratic societies. 
• Thus in modern democracies, we have the executive, legislature, and judiciary as separate entities of government. 
• He has classified political institutions into republic, aristocracy, monarchy, and autocracy. 

Additional Information

• Robert Michels was a German-born Italian political sociologist who was famous for the formulation of the Iron Law of Oligarchy. 
• The Iron Law of Oligarchy states that all political systems however democratic will eventually develop into oligarchies. 
• Harold Gould is an American anthropologist who specialized in Indian society and civilization. 
• He has studied the caste system, religion, politics, etc of India. 
• Rajni Kothari was a famous Indian political scientist. 
• He was a great activist who was involved in continuous research on the intellectual and ethical dimensions of Indian politics.

The correct answer is Four. Key Points

• According to Max Weber, "an Action is 'social' if the acting individual takes account of the behavior of others and is thereby oriented in its course". “Social action means taking steps to change the things that are wrong in our society and introducing new ideas and processes for doing things better in the future.”
• Types of social action by weber are:
  • Rational-purposeful Action
  • Value-rational Action
  • Affective Action
  • Traditional Action

Additional Information

• Rational action may be understood as the action of an 'outcome-oriented' kind in which certain requirements are met regarding the nature of, and the relations among: actors' goals, their beliefs relevant to the pursuit of these goals, and the course of action which, in given circumstances, they then follow.
• value-rational action" are terms scholars use to identify two kinds of behavior that humans can engage in. Scholars call using means that "work" as tools, instrumental action, and pursuing ends that are "right" as legitimate ends, value-rational action.
• Affective action fuses mean and end together so that action becomes emotional and impulsive. Such action is the antithesis of rationality
• Traditional action occurs when the ends and the means of action are fixed by custom and tradition. For example, some so-called primitive societies have very strict rites of succession for group leaders.

Thus, Four characteristics of social action have been given by Max Weber.

The correct answer is option 1- Both A and R are true but R is the correct explanation of A. 

For Bourdieu, habitus influences the ways we perceive the world around us, the way we think, and the way we act. It operates below the level of consciousness and language, embodying history, yet doing so in a way that forms and shapes present practices, perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors. It is society structured and internalized in individuals' bodies and minds.

Additional Information

•  Habitus is a central concept in the social theory of Pierre Bourdieu, a prominent French sociologist and anthropologist who lived in the 20th century. Habitus refers to the deeply ingrained habits, skills, and dispositions that we acquire over the course of our lives from our family, our class, our education, and our social experiences. According to Bourdieu, these are typically learned in a subconscious way and become embodied.
• For Bourdieu, habitus influences the ways we perceive the world around us, the way we think, and the way we act. It operates below the level of consciousness and language, embodying history, yet doing so in a way that forms and shapes present practices, perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors. It is society structured and internalized in individuals' bodies and minds.
• For example, based on Bourdieu's concept of habitus, people who come from working-class backgrounds might interpret and respond to the world very differently from those who come from more privileged classes, because they have been socialized differently and acquire different sets of dispositions.